Reading strategies and reading comprehension - Free Essay Example

GEPT: General English Profiency Test HP: Higher proficiency LP: Lower proficiency HETC: Harvard Education Training Center Rationale Hammadon (1991) says: Reading comprehension is not just understanding words, sentences, or even texts, but involves a complex interartion of the readers prior knowledge, language profiency and their learning strategies (p.30). So reading strategies are very important to achieve the comprehension. Many types of reading strategies are introduced to guide students of all different levels. However, there were few researchers who investigate the relationship of reading comprehension strategies and reading comprehension of students. At HETC, reading has a key place in any English courses when students study English not only as the interest but also the demand for improving their study and promoting in their careers to achieve the long-term goals, especially some of them were assigned to live and work abroad. In their learning process, almost the students meet great challenges when dealing with the reading texts. They usually do not understand texts and cannot complete the tasks so they fe el tired in reading lessons. Therefore, what are the main causes of this current situation? In order to find out the answer, the researcher started a survey on the reading comprehension strategy use. For teachers at HETC, it is hoped that this study may offer them the ways on how to identify strategies used by the students and then they can decide what they should do to promote their students reading comprehension and in their learning as well. Literature review 2.1. Reading comprehension strategies and reading skills Oxford (1990) gives a detailed definition of language learning strategies: Learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations (p.8) and described concretely how learning strategies are applied to the four language skills: listening, speaking, writing and reading. According to her, four strategies: listening strategies, , or reading strategies are those learning strategies themselves that applied to each of the four skills. Of course, skills and strategies are two big words and common terms of the reading activities, as well. Nutall (1982) pointed out that reading was certainly a process of the readers, who used strategies to work with the meaning of the texts actively and then made sense from them. By the interesting interactions from the readers and texts, more and more researchers keep working to research the relationship between the use of reading strategies and reading comprehension. However, strategy and skill, are they different? Yes, it was actually apparent that they were different. Strategy meant people used the planned methods and implements to achieve their goals, but skill was known as a routine. Moreover, strategy was the result of conciously work towards goals. It helped readers to understand the meaning of contents in order to find out the answer or obtain a certain performance level in reading that they want for themselves (Gagn, 1985). However, it is not always easy to make such a clear differnces between these two terms. Grabe and Stoller (2002) said that many abilities that are commonly identified as strategies are relatively automatic in their use by fluent readers (e.g. skipping an unknown word while reading, rereading to reestabilsh text meaning (p.15) Paris et al (1991) supposed an emerging skill can become more efficient and developmentally advanced when they become generated and applied automatically as skills (p.61). Sometimes this differen ce is not clear at all because that is part of the nature of reading. In this study, reading strategies are used to show specific actions, steps and plans that students conciously apply in their reading process to improve their comprehension. 2.2. The relationship between reading strategies and reading comprehension Reading comprehension must occur rapid in almost any purposeful context, and the more rapidly a text is read, the better reading processes are to effect. Those specific processes must be implemented effectively in combination to ensure the reading comprhension. Reading comprehension requires the reader be strategic. The reader needs to identify processing difficulties, address balances between text information and background knowledge, decide for monitoring comprhension, and shifing goals for reading. When a good reader use strategies, they can read fluently, flexible in line with changing purpose and then continue monitoring the comprehension. Similarly, reading is an process that evaluating the reader, who must decide if the reading information is coherent and finds out the purpose for reading.Alderson (2003) said reading as the interaction of four things. He claimed that the reader and the text together must be fluent reading or the ability to reach at an appropriate rate with ad equate comprehension, or the ability of the reader to use a wide variety of reading strategies to accomplish a purpose for reading (p.149). So discovering the best methods and strategies are the way that a good learner apply during a reading process. 2.3. Previous research on reading comprhension strategies Grellet, F. (1981) wrote a book Developing Reading Skills. This book showed the important role of reading and provided some techniques which help learners improve their reading skill. Nutal, C. (1989) proved reading is to enable students to read without help unfamiliar authentic texts at appropriate speed, silently with adequate understanding. Ozek, O. (2006) researched A study on the Use of Cognitive Reading Strategies by ELT Students. This study carried out to find out which reading strategies are commonly employed by ELT students while reading a text, and which reading strategies are needed to be developed to understand the text better, and to continue academic studies successfully. San San Kung (2007) did an investigation into the relationship between reading comprehension and the use of reading strategies among EFL students in colleges in Taiwan. Through the study, the researcher knew what the reading strategies the EFL students use more or less and what the differences between different grade students. Methodology This chapter will describe research methods used to collect data to answer the research questions and then explain how and why the methods are used. 3.1. Research questions This study aims to find out reading strategy use of HETCs students. This also has objectives to discover if there are any differences in strategy use between lower and higher proficiency readers, as well. Then to suggest some recommendations to raise students awareness of using reading comprehension strategies in the classroom. It aims at answering the following questions: 1. What reading strategies are used by students at HETC? 2. What are the differences in the use of reading strategies between lower and higher proficiency readers? 3.2. Descriptions of variables 3.2.1. Independent variables In this study, the independence variables were the students at HETC. 51 students were chosen as representatives of this particular group sudents to collect needed data. These 51 students were divided into four groups in which students are the members of higher and lower proficiency groups. These 2 groups were chosen to get information to answer the second research question ( More details about these groups and about higher and lower proficiency readers will be found in 3.3.1 and 3.4.2) 3.2.2. Dependent variable: The dependent variable in this research were the strategies applied in reading comprehension, i.e. reading comprehension strategies. 3.3. The data collection instruments: This study employs a combibation of 3 data collection instruments: * General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) * Questionaire * Think-aloud interviews As one of the objectives of this study is to find out if there are any dfferences in the strategy use between higher proficiency (HP) and lower proficiency (LP) readers. The test was used to divide the subjects into difference groups in which groups of higher and lower proficiency were chosen to collect the data. Think-aloud interviews aimed at getting qualitative data and quesionaire was used to get quantiative data. The author can collect a large information of all mentioned strategies and the information from students who share their thought of strategy use in the think-aloud interviews. Of course, the think a loud interviews in this study can be one of the best ways to reaffirm the result got from the questionaire. For example, in the questionaire, the subjects report that they use life experiences to understand the meaning of texts or read the first and last paragraphs and then go back to read the paragraphs; the author will know they use these strategies or not in the interview. 3.3.1. Test A General English proficiency test is a procedure taken to collect data on students ability or the knowledge of disciplines as Information about peoples language ability is often very useful and necessary (Nunan, 1992). The GEPT was taken form the book IELTS for Academic Purpose: A short insentive course (see the appendix 3). Based on the result of the test, the subjects were classified into 4 groups. Group 1 consists students who just got from mark 1 to 2.5; group 2 has those who got mark from 3 to 5. The students in these 2 groups are LP learners. Meanwhile, the students who are in group 3 got mark from 5.5 to 6.5 they are at medium levels. And the last group group 4 consists of HP ones who got mark from 7 and over. After having the result of the test, the author decided to chose group 2 and 4 to collect the data to answer the second research question. So there are 51 subjects in these 2 groups. The author did not choose group 1 because their proficiency were too low and they we re only 1% of the subjects. Details of the test can be found in Appendix 1. 3.3.2. Questionaire: Questionaire is the second data collection instrument in this study. This is also a pretty popular means of data collection. Many researchers suppose that using questionaire in language research has many advantages. First, questionaire can be given to a great amount of students at the same time and it is self-administered. Second, to protect the privacy and keep the fairness, the subjects names might not be appeared on the questionaire. So subjects tend to share the information more naturally, even some sensitive information. Third, the data collected are more accurate because questionaire is usually given to all the subjects at the same time. This study used one survey questionaire to gather the information about reading strategies as well as the differences in strategy use between these two kinds of readers. According to the result of the questionaire (and interviews), the athor can make some recommendation to help students improve their reading abilities. The quesionaire was designed based on the questionaire of Shan Shan Kung (2007). This part consists 3 parts. Of couse, in this study, the author modified the first part personal information part. The next part concept of reading had 3 questions to explore the perceptions of English reading. The last part had thirty eight questions of strategy use. In the beginning of third section, thirty four questions utilized a Liker Scale point systems. The subjects were asked to respond to each statement by choosing among four answers: 1) usually; 2) sometimes; 3) rarely; 4) never. Each section has four to six questions (except section 1 has 10 questions because of discoverin g the reading process). Through the survey, the author found out which strategies actually actracted HP readers more than LP readers. 3.3.3. Think aloud interviews In addition to the quetionaire, interviews are used to obtain information by actually talking to the subject. The interviewer asks questions and the subject responds. Interviews are the good way for collecting data as Seliger, H.W. (1989) claimed Interviews are personalized and therefore permit a level of in-depth information gathering, free response and flexibility that cannot be obtained by other procedures (p.166). However, it can be costly and time consuming. In this study, think aloud interviews were used to collect the data about the students reading strategy. The Interviewer Guide for Reading Strategies developed by Honsenfeld et al. (1981). In oder to make the Guide appropriate for objectives of thi study, the researcher has made some changes in the strategies they posed ( see Appendix 3). 3.4. Participants in the study: At the time the study was carried out, the subjects had just finished an English course. Their textbook was Therefore, their commonly assumed proficiency was intermidiate. They were members of three classes. One class included 25 students , 24 in the other class and 21 in the last one and they stuied the same textbook. Their ages ranged from 19 to 24. Almost all of students had at least 3 years of learning English before this class. They were delivered a reading proficiency test to be divided into higher and lower proficiency readers. In this study, gender has minimal effect on the results because the number of male students is quite small in the total of the subjects. 3.5. Procedure The data were collected by the researcher during a week in autum 2009. After contacting the English teachers of the subjects in person to get approval for asking their students to participate in the study, the researcher pre-arranged the time. The researcher went to English classes to administer the tests. The students were asked to complete the test in 60 minutes. The English teachers and the researcher supervised and marked the test papers later. The 2 days after, subjects were distributed the questionanires. The researcher gave some directions to the subjects and of then encouraged students to ask for any clarifications they might need and any other extra time when they filled out the questionaire. And of couse, the researcher wanted to protect the privacy and the students fairness, so the students names would not fill in the questionaires. In order to advoid misunderstanding the questions, the questionaire were translated into Vietnamese which were enclosed with the English version. The questionaire administration took about 30 minutes in each class. For days later, six chosen students were interviewed individually at the researcher s office in HETC. The reseacher pre-arranged the time and contacted to the students by the phone. Before the interview, the reseacher gave the instructions and explained the purpose of the study to students so they could understand what they had to do clearly. Each interview took from 10 to 15 minutes. Data analysis and findings 4.1. The result of the questionaire 4.1.1. Demographic Data Table 4.1 Demographic Information of Students (N=51) Subject Frequency Percentage Total N % Gender Male 9 17.6 51 100 Female 42 82.4 Level Lower proficiency 32 63.7 Higher proficiency 19 36.3 Years of English learning experience 2 3 5.9 51 100 4 9 17.6 5 15 29.4 6 11 21.6 7 6 11.8 8 2 3.9 9 4 7.8 10 1 2.0 Look at the table 4.1, of the 51 students participating in the study, 9 (17.6%) were males and 43 (82.4%) were females. Of the 19 HP students (36.3%) and 32 (63.7%) were LP students. When asking about years of English learning experience, just 1 students (2.0%) has been studying English for ten years. 9 students (17.6%) have been studying English for four years, 15 students (29.4%) have been studying English for five years, 11 students (21.6%) have been studying English for six years, 6 students (11.8%) have been studying English for seven years, 2 students (3.9%) have been studying English for eight years, 4 students (7.8%) have been studying English for nine years. Because foreign language in general and English in particular were given into school from sixth grade in secondary school, and from tenth grade in high school ( in some remote areas), the most students years of English learning experience were between four and seven years. To answer the second section of the questionnaire about concepts of reading, the results were presented in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 The Relationship between the Important of Reading for Language Learning and Reading Hours per Week by higher and lower proficiency students Reading hours per week 2 3 4 Over 4 N % N % N % N % Higher proficiency students (N =19) Very important 2 10.5 5 26.3 6 31.6 3 15.8 important 1 5.3 2 10.5 Not important Lower proficiency students (N =32) Very important 6 18.8 7 21.9 5 15.6 important 4 12.5 5 15.6 4 12.5 Not important 1 3.1 According to the illustration of Table 4.2, HP students who thought reading was very important for language learning were 2 (10.5%) spent two hours per week on reading, 5(26.3%) for three hours per week, 6 (31.6%), for four hours per week and 3 (15.8%) for over four hours per week. HP students who thought reading was important for language learning were 1 (5.3%) spent two hours per week on reading, 2 (10.5%) for four hours per week. There were not any students who thought reading was not important for language learning. In the LP group, 6 (18.8%) students thought reading was very important for language learning and spent two hours per week for it, 7 (21.9%) spent three hours for reading, 5 (15.6%) spent four hours for reading. These LP students supposed reading was important for language learning were 4 (12.5%) spent two hours per week on reading, 5 (15.6%) for three hours per week. There was 1 (3.1%) students said reading was not important for language learning but still spent two hours per week on it. 4.1.2. Findings for Research Question One The research question one was What reading comprehension strategies are used by students at HETC ? After collecting data, it showed what the same or different strategies were used more or less by HP or LP students for helping them understand the contents of the reading materials in different reading situations and were ranked from low to high to represent which strategy would be used more or less by the students during their reading process in different situations. The results were listed in the following by all of students reading ability levels when they used reading strategies in different reading situations. The total results came from the 51 students in Table 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6. Table 4.3 Means, Ranks, and Standard Deviations of the Uses of Reading Strategies in First Section by students at HETC When I read English materials, Mean Mean SD Rank 1. I read a table of contents, and then read the contents 1.82 1 .90 2. I focus on the first sentence of each paragraph for helping me understand the main points of the whole paragraph 2.51 7 .12 3. I underline the main points when I am reading 2.03 4 .97 4. I write Vietnamese on the margin for vocabulary words I dont understand during reading 1.86 2 .90 5 I skim over the full text, and then read details 1.88 3 .92 6 I use life experiences helping me understand the meaning of texts 1.86 2 .90 7 I use the background knowledge of the English culture to understand the contents 2.57 8 1.03 8 I use key words or sentences to guess the main idea of the articles 1.88 3 1.08 9 After reading each paragraph, I ask myself if I understand what I read before, and paraphrase the main idea, then keep reading the next paragraph 2.25 5 1.09 10 I discuss what I read with classmates 2.45 6 1.05 In Table 4.3, the result indicated which strategies the 51 students used more or less when they read English materials. The table showed the data with mean, mean rank, and standard deviation. As illustration of Table 4.3, the mean was from 1.82 to 2.51 and the rank was S1 (1.82) S4 = S6 (1,86) S5= S8 (1.88) S3 (2.03) S9 (2.25) S10 (2.45) S2 (2.51) S7 (2.57). The data express that strategy 1 had lowest mean scores. It meant that strategy 1 I read the table of contents, and then read the contents most students would like to use to help them understand the contents during reading process. On the contrary, they used the two least strategies: strategy 2 and strategy 7. Table 4.4 Means, Ranks, and Standard Deviations of the Uses of Reading Strategies in First Section by students at HETC When I do not understand a vocabulary, Mean Mean SD Rank 11 I check the dictionary immediately 2.37 3 1.1 12 I mark and pass it, keep reading and then go back 2.33 2 1.08 13 I use other words in the sentence to infer the meaning of vocabulary 2.09 1 .87 14 I analyze its suffix and prefix to get its meaning 3.00 4 1.21 Through Table 4.4, strategy 13 I use other words in the sentence to infer the meaning of vocabulary was most used by the students when they did not understand a vocabulary during the reading process. On contrary, strategy 14 I analyze its suffix and prefix to get its meaning was the strategy which most students used least in this reading situation. Table 4.5 Means, Ranks, and Standard Deviations of the Uses of Reading Strategies in First Section by students at HETC When I do not understand a sentence, Mean Mean SD Rank 15 I use the context (topic, subject) to derive the meaning of each sentence 1.86 1 .91 16 I translate word for word into Vietnamese to better understand the meaning of the sentences 2.35 4 1.12 17 I take grammar analysis (ex: finding subject and verb etc.) to understand the meaning of the sentences 2.33 3 1.02 18 I analyze the structure of sentences (ex: sample sentence, adjective clause, or adverb clause, etc.)to derive the meaning of sentence 2.37 5 .97 19 I will analyze the verb tense (ex: past tense or future tense) or verb mood (ex: subjunctive mood or imperative mood) for better understanding 2.27 2 .95 In Table 4.5, those strategies had close mean scores between each other, but it also pointed out the differences from 2.27 to 2.37, except the strategy 15 had the mean score less 1.86. It described that strategy 15 I use the context (topic, subject) to derive the meaning of each sentence were the most used by the students when they did not understand a sentence during reading process. Vice versa, the means of the strategy 16 and strategy 18 to derive the meaning of sentence meant that they were used least than other strategies in this section. Table 4.6 Means, Ranks, and Standard Deviations of the Uses of Reading Strategies in First Section by students When I dont understand (including vocabulary and sentences,) except above reading strategies, Mean Mean SD Rank 20 I check books (ex: grammar books or encyclopedia) for references 2.16 2 1.14 21 I go on the Internet to find related information 1.98 1 .92 22 I ask teachers or classmates for clarification 2.27 3 1.03 23 I read the difficult parts several times 2.63 5 1.12 24 I read the contents orally several times 2.47 4 .94 25 I will memorize the vocabulary pertaining to the contents before reading 2.16 2 .99 According to the data, it presented that strategy 21 I go on Internet to find related information was used by almost students. The information technology nowaday becomes quite popular to students so they would like to search information on the Internet. The S20 = S25 (2.16) both stood the second position. The strategy that students used least was strategy 23 I read difficult parts several times. 4.1.3. Findings for Research Question Two Research question two was What are the differences in the use of reading strategies of the higher and lower proficiency students at HETC? Through mean, standard deviation, t-tests and p value, the data analysis depicted detailed information about the differences of reading strategy performance between these two groups of students. The comparative groups focused on higher and lower proficiency student. Table 4.7 Means, Standard Deviations, t-Tests and p Value between higher and lower proficiency students at HETC when I read English materials, Lower proficiency students Higher proficiency students T p (N=19) (N=32) Mean SD Mean SD 1. I read a table of contents, and then read the contents 2.00 1.054 1.72 .813 .999 .322 2. I focus on the first sentence of each paragraph for helping me understand the main points of the whole paragraph 2.16 1.118 1.78 .792 1.288 .20 3. I underline the main points when I am reading 2.00 1.105 2.06 .914 -.208 .84 4. I write Vietnamese on the margin for vocabulary words I dont understand during reading 2.79 1.084 2.78 1.069 .026 .98 5. I skim over the full text, and then read details 2.05 1.026 1.78 .870 .965 .34 6. I use life experiences helping me understand the meaning of texts 1.89 .937 1.84 .917 .189 .85 7. I use the background knowledge of the English culture to understand the contents 2.05 1.129 2.86 .871 -2.729 .00** 8. I use key words or sentences to guess the main idea of the articles 2.37 1.261 1.59 .911 2.412 .02* 9. After reading each paragraph, I ask myself if I understand what I read before, and paraphase the main idea, then keep reading the next paragraph 2.00 1.202 2.53 .983 -1.630 .11 10. I discuss what I read with classmates 2.53 1.264 2.41 .946 .359 .72 p.05*, p.01** As indicated in Table 4.7, strategy 7 and strategy 8 attended to the significant difference level (p.05) which meant there were significant differences in usage between the two groups of students. Looking at the means of strategy 1, 2, 5, 10 the analyzing data showed that good students had lower frequency of use than lower ones. Meanwhile, look at strategy 9, HP students had higher frequency to use these strategies to help their read than LP students As for the rest strategies in this section, there were no significant differences between two groups. Table 4.8 Means, Standard Deviations, t-Tests and p Value between higher and lower proficiency students at HETC When I do not understand a vocabulary, Higher proficiency students Lower proficiency students t p (N=19) (N=32) Mean SD Mean SD 11. I check the dictionary immediately 3.32 .749 1.81 .896 6.432 .00** 12. I mark and pass it, keep reading and then go back 2.89 1.1 2.06 .878 2.809 .00** 13. I use other words in the sentence to infer the meaning of vocabulary 2.05 .911 2.13 .871 -.279 .78 14. I analyze its suffix and prefix to get its meaning 2.84 1.344 3.13 1.07 -.782 .44 p.05*; p.01** In table 4.8, strategy 11 and strategy 12 attended to the significant different level (p.05). That meant that the two strategies both had significant differences on frequencies of use between HP students and LP students mean scores. Good students had higher frequency to use the strategy to solve their vocabulary problems during the reading process. The mean score of strategy 11 showed that HP students would prefer to use it for solving their vocabulary problems, but LP students did not. Other strategies in this part, there were no significant differences. Table 4.9 Means, Standard Deviations, t-Tests and p Value between higher and lower proficiency students When I do not understand a sentence, Higher proficiency students Lower proficiency students t p (N=19) (N=32) Mean SD Mean SD 15. I use the context (topic, subject) to derive the meaning of each sentence 1.89 1.1 1.84 .808 .176 .86 16. I translate word for word into Vietnamese to better understand the meaning of the sentences 3.21 0.976 1.84 0.884 5.005 .00** 17. I take grammar analysis (ex: finding subject and verb etc.) to understand the meaning of the sentences 2.16 1.167 2.44 .948 -.885 .38 18. I analyze the structure of sentences (ex: sample sentence, adjective clause, or adverb clause, etc.)to derive the meaning of sentence 1.84 .898 2.69 .896 -3.253 .00* 19. I will analyze the verb tense (ex: past tense or future tense) or verb mood (ex: subjunctive mood or imperative mood) for better understanding 1.84 .898 2.53 .915 -2.630 .01* p.05*, p.01** As indicated in Table 4.9, strategy 18 and strategy 19 attended to significant different level (p.05). These strategies had significant differences between the two groups. Through the mean score, we know these significant differences were that HP students preferred to use this strategy more often to help them reading fluently, but LP ones did not. However, in strategy 16 I translate word for word into Vietnamese to better understand the meaning of the sentences, LP students preferred this strategy to HP students. Table 4.10 Means, Standard Deviations, t-Tests and p Value between higher and lower proficiency students When I dont understand (including vocabulary and sentences,) except above reading strategies, Higher proficiency students Lower proficiency students t p (N=19) (N=32) Mean SD Mean SD 20. I check books (ex: grammar books or encyclopedia) for references 2.32 1.157 2.06 1.162 .755 .45 21. I go on the Internet to find related information 2.05 .970 1.94 .914 .419 .68 22. I ask teachers or classmates for clarification 2.16 1.214 3.25 .984 -3.326 .00** 23. I read the difficult parts several times 3.37 .761 2.19 1.091 4.54 .00** 24. I read the contents orally several times 2.53 .905 2.44 .982 .328 .74 25. I will memorize the vocabulary pertaining to the contents before reading 2.05 1.312 2.22 .792 -.501 .62 p.05*, p.01** In table 4.10, strategy 22 and strategy 23 attended to the significant difference level (p.05). It meant that the two strategies had significant differences on frequency of use between efficient student and less efficient student mean score. It seemed that HP students like to use the strategy 22 when they don not understand their reading. Vice versa, the LP students like to use strategy 23 I read the difficult part several times even it would waste of their time. Other strategies did not have significant differences between these two groups. In order to know the futher information about the strategy of the two groups. There were think-aloud interviews to conduct the results. 4.4. The results of the interviews As mentioned in 3.3.3, in this study, six students with 1 girls and 3 boys were given think alound interviews to get further information about their reading strategy use and to reaffirm the results of the quetionaire. Among them, 2 are successful and 2 are unsuccessful. The first trend the researcher took notes is the use of strategies of skimming and scanning by both goood and poor students. When students were asked When you read a text like this, what do you usually do? they all answered First, I look through the text to get the main ideas of it. After that, I read the required tasks and come back to the text to find the answers. It seemed that most of them did in this way automatically. And All of them dont know that they were using reading strategies in their reading process. The second trend is that the students used translating strategy at a lower rate than they answered in the questionaire. Both two poor readers claimed they were trying to translate the text into Vietnamese to understand it and do the task easily. While students read, they always had a pencil in their hands and underlined the new words: they then looked at dictionary or glossary. Their physical habits made the reseacher no surprise. They opened the dictionary when they met a new words. They said: There are a lot of new words and I have to use it. If not, I can not understand the text. Only one strongest students never used the glossary and finished reading in 15 minutes with comprehension as good as or better than others who took more than 20 minutes to read the article while using their dictionary. He said: I only use the dictionary as the last resort. During the intervies, nobody ask the teacher for help. This is not like what they actually did in thr classroom where they certainly make questions when they do not understand something. So the strategies I ask teacher or classmates for clarifications were not directly observed in the interviews because the students were interviewed individually. conclusion In conclusion, The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of reading strategies by higher and lower proficiency students, to find out the common and uncommon strategies used by these students at HETC. The findings may use to predict the possible students viewpoints of learning to read in Vietnam. Although the study was limited by fifty-one students coming from HETC, The principal emered from the study: 1. Most students had English learning experiences from four to seven years, so they actually understood the important role of reading in Enlish language acquisition, but they still did not spend much time on it. The main reason might be most teachers in Vietnam would mainly focus on teaching grammar. Because they believed it was useful for the tests. 2. Most students (even fewer learning experiences ones) could choose appropriate strategies to help them read effectively when they could not understand the text or met some reading problems. 3. The HP students knew how to use more strategies to help them read better and apply more strategies than LP students because they thought that reading strategies were useful for helping reading comprehension. Thereforce, from the findings of this study and from the teaching and learning context at HETC, the researcher recommends that teacher should raise their students awareness of using learning strategies in common, especially reading strategies, teach them how to use strategies appropriately and encourage them to use the strategies more often not only in the classroom but also in new contexts. Future research can investigate if teaching particular reading strategies results in better reading scores on standardized tests. Appendix 1 Survey questionnaire The questionnaire is aimed to investigate reading comprehension strategies. We are grateful for your goodwill and cooperation in truthfully completing the questionnaire. Please respond to each question as frankly and accurately as possible. Thank you very much! I. Personal information (please fill in the blanks with numbers) 1. You are in group: _________ (1) GE2/08/2 _________ (2) GE2/22/4 2. Gender ___________(1) male ___________(2) female 3. How many years have you studied English? _________ II. Concepts of reading (please fill in the blanks with numbers) 1. Do you think that reading is important for language learning? __________ (1) very important, __________ (2) important, __________ (3) not important, __________ (4) not very important. 2. Do you read English materials other than the teachers assignments? _______(1) yes _______(2) no 3. How many hours do you spend reading English very week? (including textbooks) ______(1) two hours ______ (2) three hours ______ (3) four hours ______ (4) over four hours. III. The use of reading strategies Please fill in the blanks with ( ) according to how offen you use a certain reading strategy : 1 = usually 2 = sometimes 3 = less 4 = never When I read English material, 1 2 3 4 1. I read a table of contents, and then read the contents 2. I focus on the first sentence of each paragraph for helping me understand the main points of the whole paragraph 3. I underline the main points when I am reading 4. I write Vietnamese on the margin for vocabulary words I dont understand during reading 5. I first skim the text then go back and read carefully 6. I use life experiences helping me understand the meaning of texts 7. I use the background knowledge of the English culture to understand the contents 8. I use key words or sentences to guess the main idea of the articles 9. After reading each paragraph, I ask myself if I understand what I read before, and paraphase the main idea, then keep reading the next paragraph 10. I discuss what I read with classmates When I do not understand a vocabulary, 11. I check the dictionary immediately 12. I mark and pass it, keep reading and then go back 13. I use other words in the sentence to infer the meaning of vocabulary 14. I analyze its suffix and prefix to get its meaning When I do not understand a sentence, 15. I use the context (topic, subject) to derive the meaning of each sentence 16. I translate word for word into Vietnamese to better understand the meaning of the sentences 17. I take grammar analysis (ex: finding subject and verb etc.) to understand the meaning of the sentences 18. I analyze the structure of sentences (ex: sample sentence, adjective clause, or adverb clause, etc.)to derive the meaning of sentence 19. I will analyze the verb tense (ex: past tense or future tense) or verb mood (ex: subjunctive mood or imperative mood) for better understanding When I dont understand (including vocabulary and sentences,) except above reading strategies, 20. I check books (ex: grammar books or encyclopedia) for references 21. I go on the Internet to find related information 22. I ask teachers or classmates for clarification 23. I read the difficult parts several times 24. I read the contents orally several times 25. I will memorize the vocabulary pertaining to the contents before reading Appendix 2 PHIU IU TRA Phiu iu tra ny iu tra v chin lc c hiu ca sinh vin. Chng ti rt bit n s thin ch v hp tc ca bn hon thnh phiu iu tra ny. Xin vui lng tr li nhng cu hi di y mt cch trung thc v chnh xc nht. Chng ti xin cm n s gip ca cc bn. I. Thng tin c nhn (xin vui lng in vo khong trng theo ch s) 1. Bn hc lp _________ (1) K19a1_________ (2) K19a3 2. Gii tnh ___________(1) nam _________ (2) n 3. Bn hc ting Anh c bao nhiu nm? ___________ II. Cc quan nim v k nng c hiu (xin vui lng in vo khong trng theo ch s) 1. Bn c ngh rng k nng c hiu l quan trng trong vic hc ngoi ng khng? ____________(1) rt quan trng, ___________(2) quan trng, ____________(3) khng quan trng, ___________(4) rt khng quan trng. 2 .Bn c c cc ti liu ting Anh nhiu hn so vi cc bi tp m thy c giao cho bn khng? _______(c) _______(khng) 3. Mi tun bn dnh bao nhiu ting c ting Anh? (bao gm c sch gio khoa) ________(1) hai ting ________ (2) ba ting________ (3) bn ting ________(4) hn bn ting III. V vic s dng chin lc c hiu: Xin vui lng in du ( ) vo khong trng theo mc t 1 n 4 l : 1 = thng xuyn s dng 2 = thnh thong s dng 3 = t khi s dng 4 = cha tng s dng Khi ti c ti liu ting Anh, 1 2 3 4 1. Ti thng c phn mc lc, sau c phn ni dung 2. Ti thng tp trung vo cu u ca mi on gip ti hiu chnh ca ton on 3. Ti thng gch chn nhng chnh trong khi ti c 4. Ti thng vit nhng t mi trn l khi m ti khng hiu trong khi c 5. Ti c lt qua ton on, sau c chi tit 6. Ti s dng nhng kinh nghim ca cuc sng gip ti hiu ngha ca bi c 7. Ti s dng hiu bit v nn vn ho Anh hiu ni dung 8. Ti s dng nhng t hoc nhng cu chnh on chnh 9. Sau khi c mi on, ti t hi liu ti c hiu nhng g m ti c phn trc cha, v din gii bng cch khc nhng chnh, sau tip tc c on tip theo 10. Ti tho lun nhng g ti c vi bn cng lp Khi m ti khng hiu t vng, 11. Ti tra t in ngay lp tc 12. Ti nh du v tip tc c, sau quay li nhng t vng 13. Ti s dng nhng t khc trong cu suy ra ngha ca t 14. Ti phn tch phn tin t v hu t bit ngha ca t Khi ti khng hiu on vn, 15. Ti s dng bi cnh (tiu , ch ) hiu ngha ca mi on 16. Ti dch tng t ra ting Vit hiu hn ngha ca on vn 17. Ti phn tch ng php (v d nh tm ch ng, ng t) hiu ngha ca cu 18. Ti phn tch cu trc ca cu (v d nh cu mu, mnh tnh ng, mnh trng ng) hiu ngha ca cu 19. Ti phn tch thi ca ng t (thi qu kh, thi tng lai) hoc l tnh thi ca ng t (gi nh thc hoc mnh lnh thc) hiu hn Khi ti khng hiu (bao gm c t vng v cu), tr nhng chin lc c trn, 20. Ti tra sch(sch ng php hoc t in bch khoa ton th) tham kho 21. Ti vo mng tm thng tin lin quan 22. Ti hi thy c hoc bn b gii thch 23. Ti c nhng phn kh hiu nhiu ln 24. Ti c to phn ni dung nhiu ln 25. Ti nh t vng gn vi phn ni dung trc khi c Appendix 3 READING READING PASSAGE 1 VENUS The planet Venus, named after the Roman goddess of love, is the second closest planet to the Sun (Mercury is the closest), and the second brightest natural object in the night sky (after the Moon). From Earth, Venus is brightest just after sunset and just before dawn. Because of this, the planet is often known as the Morning Star of the Evening Star. Venus is also sometimes known as the Earths sister, because both planets share similarities in terms of size Venus surface area and volume are just a little smaller than Earths. However, scientists believe that, several billion years ago, Venus and Earth were much more similar than they are today. Back then, Venus atmosphere was more like Earths, and there was almost certainly water in liquid form on the surface. Over time, Venus became hotter, and this water evaporated. Today, the planets surface is a dry dusty desert. Above the ground on Venus are sulphuric acid clouds. These thick clouds prevent the surface of the planet being seen from Earth. Indeed, it is only in the last few decades that scientists have discovered what the surface of the planet is really like. In the early 1990s, NASAs Magellan spacecraft mapped the surface of Venus in detail for the first time. Its radar images of hills, ridges and craters are almost photographic in their quality. Questions 1 3 Which THREE of the following statements are true, according to the reading passage? NB Your answers may be giver in any order. 1 _______ 2_______ 3_______ A The Moon is the brightest natural object in the night sky. B From Earth, Venus is at its brightest in the middle of the night. C Venus is a slightly larger planet than Earth. D Venus atmosphere has changed greatly over billions of years. E A telescope is required to see Venus surface from Earth. F Scientists now have a detailed map of the surface of Venus. G The surface of Venus is almost completely flat. Questions 4 10 Complete the sentences. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. 4 The ancient Romans had a _____________ called Venus. 5 Only ____________ is closer to the Sun than Venus. 6 Venus has been called the _____________, the Morning Star and the Evening Star. 7 It is highly likely that there was __________________ on Venus in the past. 8 Venus is a much ___________________ planet than it used to be. 9 Venus thick clouds are made of _________________ to create pictures of the surface of Venus. READING PASSAGE 2 SUPERCONDUCITIVITY In 1908, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes became the first scientist to produce liquid helium. Achieving the lowest temperatures recorded up to that point. A number of researchers that materials behaved differently at very low temperatures, and this substance was important in allowing experiments that confirmed it. Working with solid mercury, Onnes demonstrated the phenomenon of superconductivity. This is when the electrical resistance of the metal drops suddenly to zero. No energy is lost as an electric current travels through the material, making it very efficient for storing or transmitting power. Since the work done by Onnes, other superconducting materials have been discovered that can be used at higher temperatures and which are therefore more economical. There are a number of practical applications of superconducting materials, Many of these applications are based on the fact that the materials can be made into extremely powerful electromagnets. These are used in scientific experiments to direct beams of particles. They also form part of maglev trains trains that float a small distance above the rails because of magnetic forces. Because there is no contact between the train and the rail, this form of transport is capable of very high speeds, although it is unlikely to be in widespread use until cost drop considerably. Questions 11 15 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? Write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 11 Many people had tried to produce liquid helium before Onnes. ____________ 12 Onnes was the only scientist interested in very low temperatures. ____________ 13 Liquid helium was used for science at very low temperatures. ____________ 14 only metals can be used as superconductors. _______ 15 Superconductors that work at higher temperatures are more expensive. _____ Questions 16 20 Complete the summary of the second paragraph. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Superconductors are used in a variety of contexts. Very 16 __________ can be made out of superconducting materials and scientists use them in 17 _____________. In transport, maglev trains rely on the 18 ____________ produced in superconductors to raise the train above the rails, the lack of 19 __________ meaning that high velocities can be reached. The 20 ___________ of maglev systems limit their use. Appendix E Reading Activities Use for think-aloud Interviews _______________________ Reading Activities for think-aloud interviews Name Class The Legislature of the United Kingdom The main legislative body in Britain is the Parliament. It is one of the oldest representative authorities in the word. Historically, Parliament developed from the councils that in early tomes were appointed to advise the King. The Britain Parliament consists of two houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The Queen is the formal head of Parliament. The House of Commons in an elected chamber and has more power than the House of Lords. The role of the House of Lords is restricted to revising the legislation passed by the Commons and it can only delay the enactment of some bills. New laws can come into force when they passed through Parliament. A proposal for a new law is called a bill. According to very ancient practice, each bill must have three readings in order to become a law. The bill becomes a law or, in other words, an Act of Parliament, after it receives Royal Assent from the Queen. Britain is a constitutional monarchy without a written constitution. In this respect, the United Kingdom is unique among nations as constitutions are usually written documents. But this doesnt mean that Britain lacks a body of constitutional laws. Some parts of the governmental system are written down in Act of Parliament, which are also called laws of statutes. Others are regulated by conventions, which are commonly accepted assumptions about the ways things should be done, mostly based on precedents. As there are none of the usual legal restraints imposed by a written constitution, Parliament is the supreme authority in Britain and legislates as it pleases subject only to Britains obligation as a member of the European Union. Parliament has direct control over legislation. It can make new laws, replace any of the laws already in force with other laws, turn conventions into laws, or even overturn established conventions. Other law making bodies in the country (such as local councils) exercise their power only so long as Parliament authorizes them to do so. The accountability of government to Parliament for the policy of the Government as a whole, and each minister is individually responsible for the work of his or her department. Cabinet ministers may be forced to resign by the vote of confidence in the Parliament if their actions do not meet with Parliaments approval. Activity 1: Answer the following question 1. What is the topic of the text? 2. What are the historical origins of the Britain Parliament ? 3. What is the role of the House of Commons? 4. What is a bill? 5. Why are conventions important in the Britain governmental system, and what are they based on? 6. What can Parliament do with laws already in force? Activity 2: Say if the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false. The first one done for you as an example. 7. T The Britain Parliament is one of the oldest representative authorities in the world. 8. The Queen choose the member of the House of Commons. 9. A bill becomes law immediately after its third reading. 10. Only the Queen can give Royal Assent. 11. Britain does not have a constitution. 12. In some cases, the European Union has authority over the Britain Parliament. 13. Local councils exercise their power independently of Parliament. 14. All ministers are responsible to Parliament for the policies of the Government. Activity 3: Using the words in the text to fill in the gaps left in the following short passage. There are two (15) in the Britain Parliament. They are called the House of Commons and (16) -. Britain Parliament is the legislative (17) of Britain, which means that it makes new (18) and revises existing ones. Britain is a constitutional (19) -, so the Queen is the formal head of Parliament, but she does not have any real power; it is the with the most seats, that runs the country. Each department is headed by a (21) and the most important of these are together called the (22) . APENDIX 4 Details of Think-aloud Interviews Notes: P stands for Interviewees The italicized part is the original text I stands for interviewer. Interview 1: Ho Thai Khanh, 6th November 2009 (Test proficiency score: 7) I: I see you are reading something. What are you reading? P: Im reading a text called The Regislature of the United Kingdom. I: What for? P: MmTo do the exercises given below I: So what is the text about? P: I think it is about the Regislature of the United Kingdom I: OK, how do you know that? P: Oh, so simple. The title. I: Good. Do you usually read something like this? P: Yes, of course. But I mainly read in Vietnamese I: So, when you read a text like this, what do you usually do? P: I always look at the first sentence of each pparagraph for helping me understand the main points of the whole paragraph. I: OK, now do the activities and describe the ways you complete them, please? P: Yes, Regislature of the UK. Im sure the content is about the Regislature of the UK (smile). Regislature Question 2, orgins Parliament I: What are you thinking? P: Im looing for these words in my dictionaryhmm OK. Thats right, as I think, the historical orgins of the British Parliament is a councils. Next, question 3,the role of the House of Commonsoh line 7 The role of the House of Lords is restricted to revising the legislation passed by the Commons Oh, passing the legislation.Question 4, certainly it is a new law because I see it in the line 10. Question 5,conventionwhat is this? I: What are you doing? P: Im looking for the meaning of convention, precedent and assumptions I: Are they new words? P: No, not all of them. Ive read this words assumptions before but I cant remember. OK, I think may be because some parts of the govermental sysytems are written down in Acts of Parliament, but others are regualted by laws. Question 6, Parliament can replace any of the laws already in force with other laws. Yes, Parliament. I: Do you understand that sentence? P: No, because I dont knoe the word inforce I: OK. Now go on with the activity 2, please. P: Yes. Question 8 is True because I think the Queen is the most powerful. Oh, wait a minute. Its False because the House of Commons is an elected chamber. Question 9, False. It is stated in the paragraph 3. Question 10, I can answer it s true. Question 11, its False, obviously . Question 12, Oh, no I: What are you thinking? P: There are many new words. I cant find the answer here. So I will pass and then go back. Question 13, I think its False. I: Why do you think so? P: I see 2 words : only and independently, one in the question and one in the text. I just predict. I: Now, I see you always read the text again when you finish one part. Why? P: Because I need to understand the details of the text. I have to read again and again to remember it. I: I know. You dont remember the information? P: Yes, I need to check it again to advoid forget it. I: Why dont you have some notes or summerise of what you read? These ways will help you remember the inforamtion. P: I dont think about it. I: You have just finished some questions. Are you sure you have the right answer? P: Just some of them I: Do you understand the text now? P: Yes, I do I: Do you know what help you understand the text? P: May be I know a little about this topics before I: When you have to deal with difficult reading text or when youre bored with your reading, do you discuss with your classmates to share the information and find out the correct answer together? P: Yes, I do I: Do you know it is a reading strategy P: No, I dont even I usually do this I: Thanks a lot. Interview 2: Nguyen Thanh Hai, 7th Novem 2009 (Test proficiency score: 5.5) I: I: I see you are reading something. What are you reading? P: Im reading a text. I: What for? P: MmTo do the tasks. I: So what is the text about? P: I think it is about the Regislature of the United Kingdom I: OK, how do you know that? P: I read the title. I: So, when you read a text like this, what do you usually do? P: I skim over the full text first, then read the details and the required tasks. I: Oh, what are you looking for? P: Im looking for the answer for question 5. Uhm Why areconvention (Ti saoconvention I: Why dont you translate the word convention? P; Because it is a new word. I: Oh, what will you do? P: Ill check in dictionary I: But if you dont have the dictionary or glossary with you? P: Ill ignore. Question 6lawsin force I: What are you doing? P: Im having a quick look. OK, here It can make new laws, replace any of the laws already in force with other laws, turn conventions into laws, or even overturn established conventions. I: OK. Now go on with the activity 2, please. P: Yes. I think the Queen doesnt choose the members of the House of Commons because it is an elected chamber. Question 9 is acgtually false because they mentioned in the last paragraph here the bill becomes a law after it receives So question 10 is true. Question 11, its False every country has their own consitutions. Question 12 I: What are you thinking? P: Im trying to translate the question and the last sentense in paragraph four. Unfortunately, there are some new words so I cant understand.So I can not answer this question. I: Now, I see you always read the text again when you finish each part. Why? P: Because the text too long to be able to remember it immidiately so I have to reread to find the inforamtion again. I: Why dont you have some notes or summerise of what you read? These ways will help you remember the inforamtion. P: Sometimes I do. I: You have just completed the task. Are you sure you have the right answer? P: I dont know I: Do you understand the text now? P: Yes, I do I: When you have to deal with difficult reading text or when youre bored with your reading, do you discuss with your classmates to share the information and find out the correct answer together? P: Yes, I do like to disscuss with my classmates. I dont like read in silent. I like to read aloud and disciss with my classmates. I: Do you know it is a reading strategy P: Reading strategy? No. I: Do you like to ask your teacher or your classmate for help? P: Both of them. But I always ask my friends first. I: Why? P: Because Im afraid of wasting my teachers time. I: Afer reading each paragraph, do you ask yourself if you understand what you read before? P: No, never. I: Thanks a lot. Interview 3: Nguyen Chien Thang, 7th November 2005 (Test proficiency score: 4.5) I: I: I see you are reading something. What are you reading? P: Im reading a text called the Regislature of the United Kingdom I: What for? P: To do the exercise I: OK, how do you know that? P: I read the title. I: So, when you read a text like this, what do you usually do? P: I look through the article to get the main ideas and read the tasks to fing out the answer I: Good. Now you have to do these exercises. Tell me what do you often do if you have this kind of exercise. Lets begin with the first exercise. P: Yesuhm I: Oh, what are you looking for? P: Im looking for some words that I dont know. I: Oh, what are they? P: A lot of words. For example: authority, restrict, ect. Now I think the topic of the text is the Legislation of the United Kingdom. Question 2, nguyn gc lch s ca House of common. I think it is the councils. I: Good. How do you know that? P: I can read in the paragraph 1. I: OK. Lets do the question 3 and 4! P: You can find the answer easily in the paragraph 2 and 3. Question 5 I: What are you thinking? P: Im trying to translate the fourth paragraph to get the answer but I cant. It is too difficult. Ill pass. Question 6uhmhere in the text . It can make new laws, replace any of the laws already in force with other laws, turn conventions into laws, or even overturn established conventions. Other law making bodies in the country (such as local councils) exercise their power only so long as Parliament authorizes them to do so. I: OK. Now go on with the activity 2, please. P: Yes. I think its false because the Queen doesnt choose the members of the House of Commons, she just choose the members of the Lords.. Question 9 I think its true. I: Can you explain why? P: Because the text says each bill must have three resding in order to become a law So I guess its true. I: Where you can find it? And how do you guess? P: I look at the word three in the sentence and third in the question (smile) I: Good, can you explian on that? Is it stated in the text? P: No, . But in the last paragraph, I see the Government three times. I: Good I see you sometimes reread the text. Why? P: I always do this because I cant remember the information. I: Why dont you have some notes or summerise of what you read? These ways will help you remember the inforamtion. P:I nevr do this. I: Could you complete all the tasks? P: No I: Which question couldnt you answer? P: two last questions. I: Are you sure all your answer are correct? P: No, I dont I: Why dont you cooperate with your friends? P: Yes, I do. But I just disscuss with some of them I: Why? P: Because I think working with the friend I know well is better. I: Do you know it is a reading strategy P: Reading strategy? No. I: Do you like to ask your teacher or your classmate for help? P: Both of them. But I always ask my teacher first. I: Why? P: Because I think teacher will give me the correct answer. I: Afer reading each paragraph, do you ask yourself if you understand what you read before? P: Yes, I do. I: Thank you very much. Interview 4: Bui Viet Thanh, 7th November 2005 (Test proficiency score: 8) I: I: I see you are reading something. What are you reading? P: Im reading a text called the Regislature of the United Kingdom I: What for? P: I read it to find out the needed information to do the tasks.So the text iis about the legislature of UK. I: OK, how do you know that? P: I read the title and first sentence. I: Do you often read something like this? P: Yes, sometimes. I: So, when you read a text like this, what do you usually do? P: I read the text, the question and return to find out the answer. I: Good. Now you have to do these exercises. Tell me what do you often do if you have this kind of exercise. Lets begin with the first exercise. P: I think the topic of the text is the Legislation of the United Kingdom. Question 2, I think it is the councils because Parliament, developform. The meaning of develop from is pht trin t. Question 3House of Commonthe role I: What are you thinking? P: Im looking for the answer in the text but in the text they only say the role of the House of Lords is revising the legislation passed by the Commons. Oh, just a second. The role of House of Commons is passing the legislature. I: OK. How do you know that? P: I just have a guess. I dont know its true or not. Question 4, its quite clearly in the text. Question 5,convention I: What do you think about? P: Im thinking about the meaning of some words: convention,precedent. I dont know these words. But I can find the answer in the text. this doesnt mean some Britain lacks a body of constitutional lawsother regulated by convention. So I can guess. I: In this case if you dont have dictionary or gllosary, what do you often do? P: I try to guess the meaning the the word I know through the other words in the sentence. I only use the dictionary as the last resort. I: OK. Continue with the activity 3. P: Yes, wuestion 15, I think it is the word Houses, question 17, body, question 18 is the word law, question 19, mornarchy, question 20uhmquestion 21 I can not answer them. I: From the question 15 to 19, you answer so quickly. But you met difficlt when answer the qustions 20-22? P: Oh, because I can find the answer of them in the text. Question 20ohmay be gorvement because I read it before. I dont know the word departemnt so I cant do it and question 22, of course. I: Right. I see you read the text again and again. P: Yes. I have to find a lot of information I: You dont remember the information? P: I remember some. But I check it again. I: I see you noted and underline in the text. Its good. But do you often have some summerise what you read? P: I never do this before. But Ill try in the next time when I have some other readings. I: DO you understand the text? P: Yes, I can. I: Tell me, what help you to understand the text? P: Uhmm May be somethings I knew before. I: Why dont you cooperate with your friends? P: Yes, I do like this. I: Do you know it is a reading strategy P: Reading strategy? No. I: Do you like to ask your teacher or your classmate for help? P: Both of them. I: Do you like to share your feeling what you read with your friend? P: Yes, I do. I: Thank you very much.